History of Guadeloupe : Discover
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HistoryAcquainting yourself with the basics of Guadeloupe’s history, deeply linked with the history of the whole of the region, is essential if you wish to understand the cultural context of the area you are bound to. “Yesterday was yesterday, today is today”, said a certain politician from the Middle East. This, however, is not relevant to regions such as Guadeloupe, where a sound knowledge of the past gives a helping hand in understanding present day traditions. Contrarily to continental America, the Caribbean islands accommodate a great majority of “renewed” populations, and the arrival of Christopher Columbus was in a way really the beginning of history in these areas. Caribbean society known to us today is extremely young, dating from the end of the 19th, and in certain cases even the beginning of the 20th century, as the beginnings of modern society must be put around fifty years after the abolishment of slavery. Chronology
1635 : After successful settlement on the island of St Christophe
(St Kitts), the French American Islands Company delegates Charles Lienard
and Jean Duplessis, Lord of Ossonville to colonise one or any of the
region’s yet uninhabited islands, Guadeloupe, Martinique or Dominica. Due to
Martinique’s inhospitable nature, the duo resolves to settle in Guadeloupe.
The Caribbean region was first to lay eyes on the “men from over the sea”. Inhabitants of the islands practiced purely oral traditions, writing was unknown to them. Their lifestyle and fragile social structures received a great blow and completely fell apart soon after their first contacts with the technologically more advanced Old World. Amerindian populations of the Greater Antilles began a rapid decline in as little as ten years after 1492, to disappear completely before the end of the century. New illnesses (flu, smallpox), battles, punishment expeditions, deportation, assimilation and slavery had a devastating effect on these cultures. Inhabitants of the Lesser Antilles managed to resist foreign influence for a longer period of time. They held their ground until well into the 19th century, but they too vanished forever from the islands’ history due to aggressive colonisation.
Meso-Indians (from 5000 BC to our age)The beginning of this period witnessed the arrival of hunter-gatherer peoples in the region. With hunting as their principal activity, they lived in a relatively mobile society, due to their reliance upon the ability of a given natural environment to provide sufficient resources in order to sustain their population. Utensils were carved out of stone, bone and shells, and used for divers purposes. The significant number of archaeological sites excavated on the islands of Haiti, the Dominical Republic, Cuba and Puerto Rico lead to the conclusion that Meso-Indians had moved upwards into the Lesser Antilles, and respectively the Greater Antilles. One the most ancient sites of the French West Indies is the Norman Estate, dating from the end of the 3rd and beginning of the 2nd millennium, situated in Saint Maarten. Around the 5th century B.C., a new culture arrived to the area from the region of the Orinoco River. These people, known as Saladoids (with reference to the site of Saladero in today’s Venezuela, though also referred to today as “Arawak Indians”) mastered the fine art of ceramic and engaged in agriculture, navigation and fishing. They rapidly moved from the Lesser Antilles towards southern parts of the Greater Antilles (Puerto Rico, Haiti and the Dominican Republic) introducing the region to manioc, sweet potato and chillies. Excavations of their former dwelling places have shown that they led a preferably nomadic lifestyle, though mostly remained in coastal regions. Links between Saladoid and the hunter-gatherer Meso-Indian cultures are yet unknown to our days, though it is presumed that the latter culture had simply been assimilated by the more developed Arawaks. There remains a slight possibility that a certain, non-assimilated group of Meso-Indians had found their way to Cuba, where they were met by Christopher Colombus and were afterwards referred to as Ciboneys. In any case, no evidence has been found of a conquest or barbarous expansion from the part of any of the two peoples. They were exceptional agriculturists, though also familiar with fishing and other sea-related activities. Their culture evolved continually, population numbers increased, and they maintained permanent contact with their continental counterparts.
Neo-Indians (from around 1 A.D. to the arrival of the colonists)The 7th century A.D. displayed significant changes in the conception of potteries and certain customs, such as the choice of dwelling places. Advancement of tribes towards the north was disrupted and hitherto permanent links with the mainland became scarce. These radical alterations, however, were in no way accounted for by material evidence such as destruction, natural disaster, or extinction of culture. The tribes had most probably fallen under the influence of a new people, yet again from the south, referred to as Huecoids. Judging from descriptions given by the first colonists and chroniclers of the 16th and 17th centuries, this new group of immigrants –the famous “Caribbeans” or “Kallinagos” - was of a more boorish nature, which may answer for the slight regression in artistic activities such as pottery. These iron warriors had come from an unspecified region of the same Orinoco River, proceeding northward on the same paved Trinidad roads, slowly but surely eliminating the Saladoid culture on their way to progress. Their cannibalistic manners assisted them in their quest in all likelihood, though interestingly enough they spared the Arawaks’ women, which in a way explains the linguistic divergences noted by certain chroniclers. The arrival of the Spanish would prevent them from moving all the way up north into the Greater Antilles. The population of the Caribbean region experienced substantial growth as a result of different immigration waves and cultures in constant movement. Insularity, though, was soon to follow on a number of smaller islands. Despite persistent cultural exchange, certain islands began to show traces of detachment from other cultures, especially in the case of more isolated areas such as Friar’s Bay on Saint Maarten. The 12th century saw the emergence of the Taino culture in the Greater Antilles, which began a slow progress towards the Lesser Antilles, and eventually gained Guadeloupe.
Arrival of Christopher ColumbusOn the 12 October, 1492, following his 35-day voyage out to sea, Christopher Columbus (1451-1506), celebrated cartographer and seaman, appointed admiral on the 17 April, 1492 by Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand Aragon arrived to the islands of the present day Bahamas (to San Salvador, or Guanahani as called by locals) with his three ships (the Pinta, the Nina and the Santa Maria) and 90 men. He believed to have found the new maritime passage connecting Europe to China, India and Japan…and consequently to spices and above all, gold. He was thus more than surprised to meet « fellows as naked as the day they were born » instead of the welcoming Asians he had expected. He subsequently made his way to Cuba and Haiti, and was welcomed by the locals of these islands which he baptised “Hispaniola” (Spanish island). Although inhabitants of the Greater Antilles were not all of the same character, they were collectively called « Tainos » by the Spaniards, so-named after the phonetic transcription of a word the Indians had used to greet the newcomers. These first contacts between the indigenous population of the Greater Antilles and the Spanish were of a rather warm and cordial nature, and Europeans would not meet any resistance until their later ventures into the Lesser Antilles, where they encountered the Kalligano population, of a much wilder character than the peaceful Tainos. These Caribbeans were unwilling to accept the new arrivals, and their rioting resulted in the disastrous fate well known to us from the pages of history books. Marie-Galante was discovered and baptised the 3rd November, 1493, Guadeloupe the following day, and Saint Maarten eight days later, all three in the course of Columbus’ second voyage. The names of the islands as known today all originate from the conquests of these few days, and this is when the island of Karukera (or Caloucaera, island of beautiful waters) received the name “Guadeloupe” in baptism, tribute to the royal monastery of Santa Maria de Guadalupe (in the autonomous territory of Extremadura, in the province of Caceres), the place where Christopher Columbus was granted the official document commissioning him to an expedition to India. The statue of the Virgin Mary erected on the island would later become symbol of the Spanish promotion of Christianity in the newly discovered West.
16th centuryA new continent was thus discovered and it appeared plentiful to 16th-century Europe. Columbus himself died in 1506, leaving the new territories in the hands of greedier colonists. Commerce was the main priority, and smaller regions such as Guadeloupe or Martinique did not raise interest in the Spaniards, who were busy discovering and baptising the Greater Antilles and parts of the mainland. Hispaniola became the first Spanish colony, a base linking rapidly acquired new territories to the continent. Other islands of the Greater Antilles were to follow, and eventually, Cuba. The Lesser Antilles remained thus forgotten until other colonial powers arrived on the Caribbean scene. France, England and the United Provinces (the Netherlands) tried their best at converting the indigenous population to slavery, but soon opted for the solution they already practiced elsewhere when locals revealed to be a more difficult nut to crack. African slave trade had begun. Colonial society in GuadeloupeThe top position in Caribbean society was that of the planter, owner of an agricultural surface that he exploited by intermediary of a commander or a manager who had earned his trust, and a certain number of slaves or paid workers (taken on for 36 months). Planters generally lived in a residence, from where they managed their affairs. Their slaves were “African Negroes” and “Creole Negroes”, the latter born on the island and generally served as a domestic slave. Slaves on the run were referred to as “Cimaroons”, and colonists who were in a position other than a planter were called petit-blanc (little whites), a pejorative expression to emphasise their inferior status. They were often paid workers, or disposed of a small piece of land and a few slaves. As their only advantage was the colour of their skin, they were particularly careful not to mix with the local population, in order to increase their chances of becoming a planter one day. They have all but disappeared to our day, but the term lingers on as a nickname for a certain category of half-cast people, with a skin colour between mulatto and white, though of a more whitish shade. The abolishment of slavery (1848) brought about a shortage in the available workforce, and a small number of Whites began to engage as paid workers on plantations. They were to be referred to as “beke goyave”, colonists with feeble means. Planters, on their part, were more and more associated with nobility, which was not as much a fact as it may appear logical. As a matter of fact, the actual aristocracy of the Ancien Regime was not attracted by the prospects of fast money the colonies had to offer until quite later on, and entry into their strictly closed circles required more than just wealth. There were two possible paths to take if one required noble titles. Firstly, one could be raised to peerage by patriotic deeds or as a result of charges a certain function required. More typical, though, was the second option: ennoblement by a family’s means proper, which were most often money or territory. These self-made aristocrats usually took on the place-names of their birth villages as noble titles. Colonisation and related production were later encouraged by offering aristocratic titles as privileges to those interested, who could claim their newly acquired status as soon as they had met certain economic conditions. Despite the emergence of a new local aristocracy, the complex social hierarchy of French nobility never reached Guadeloupe and planters, thus, did not have to observe the rules of the mainland’s complicated subordinate relations. Descendents of colonists began to be referred to as “creoles”, an expression inherited from the Spanish (criollo), which is widely used to our days to denote anything from being born on the islands to an adjective simply used to describe all that is local. The term “beke” was slower to emerge, but is also in use well to our days. The islands’ own social structure was slow to emerge after the arrival of the first colonists. Members of the free classes, such as planters, left behind a multitude of legitimate or illegitimate children, often of coloured mothers, who were referred to as half-castes. Different nuances of skin colour were denoted by separate names, the most well-known of which were the mulattoes (a mix of black and white, metis), the chabins (also a mix of black and white, but with evident specificities of one colour, for example a white skin and light hair but African features), the quarterons or griffes (mix of black and mulatto), and the capries (a mix with only slight features of another colour). Half-caste people were regarded as a sort of intermediary caste between black and white, usually exempt from slave labour but never considered upper-class. A census conducted at the time of the French Revolution officially introduced the term “red person” in the registration of citizens, designating former slave and half caste people. The 19th century brought about the arrival of Indians and a small number of Chinese and Japanese, who were to settle in the lowest layer of society. Island vocabulary was further enriched at this time by words such as Indian Malabar, coolie, chape-coole or bata-zindien (pejorative terms for a mix between black and Indian). Revolution and slaveryAt the height of its fame, the slave trade began to be regarded with considerable criticism within the intellectual circles of the century. The Ancien Regime was severely criticised during the age of Enlightenment, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) himself denounced the Code Noir (Black Code). To soothe the rebellious atmosphere, Louis XIV’s government passed a number of significant decisions to law, among them the prohibition of maltreatment. The Revolution broke out in 1789 in the midst of this troubled atmosphere, and France was suddenly plunged into total disorder and anarchy. Revolutionary ideas and the death of the king meant war again for France, this time against the whole institution of monarchy. The West Indies showed little willingness to comply with the ideas of the mainland’s Revolution, and the colonial assembly denounced its feats, among them the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789). Napoleon I and commerce in the coloniesNapoleon’s first act was to put an end to the Revolution’s frantic advance, to regain order and re-establish the economy. His clever decision was that colonies were not part of France, and could thus continue their activities within the system of slavery. The RestorationAfter the Hundred Days, Restoration hit France for good (1815-1830) with the return of Louis XVII to the throne (1815-1824). During his short reign (of a Hundred Days), Napoleon had eventually decided to put an end to slave trade in March 1815, a decision rejected by Louis XVII on arrival to the throne. The abolishment of slaveryEurope was boiling with industrial activity, world economy advanced headstrong in the field of technology, and anti-slavery began to gain considerable ground, especially in Anglo-Saxon territories. England abolished slavery for good in 1833, and gave back its freedom to a population living in the vicinity of Guadeloupe. Into this context arrived a man, Victor Schoelcher (1804-1893), to denounce all incertitude by his exceptional perseverance. He was to be remembered by local population for his undeniable pioneering role in the abolishment of slavery. He had been involved in the cause since the 1830s, and had never since abandoned to preach the only true answer to the issue: total abolishment of any slavery. The February Revolution if 1848 and the arrival of the 2nd Republic provided him with favourable circumstances in his quest. A temporary government was put together after the flight of Louis-Philippe, of which Schoelcher became Vice Secretary of State of the Navy (5March 1848). On the 27th April, 1848 the emancipation act was finally signed and the historic phrase: “No French territory should have the right to hold slaves any longer…” was carved into French law. Society after the abolishmentMore than 80,000 people found themselves in a difficult situation: once a slave, suddenly free, they had to decide on their own future. Though liberty came suddenly enough, social equality was slow to follow, and would not be brought about until well into the 20th century. Indian ImmigrationAn alternative solution for the sudden lack of workforce had been sought after even before the abolishment, as increasing industrialisation asked for a growing number of workers in good physical condition, capable of tolerating the tropical heat. On the model of England, France chose to look into the possibility of “importing” manpower from its Indian territories. Though often represented as a sort of “second level slavery”, Indian immigrants were actually attracted to the Antilles in the context of an economic immigration, with promises of a better life. Illegal immigration and abuse of the new arrivals soon turned the project into a nightmare for those concerned, and the initial project of a democratic immigration was soon forgotten. Guadeloupe was not the only destination, the process involved numerous other islands of the Caribbean region and the Indian Ocean, as well as the American mainland. The first boat of immigrants, the Aurelie, touched land in Guadeloupe in 1854 carrying 300 passengers on board. Planters were ordered to pay a tax after each foreign worker they employed. By the year 1880, 24,000 people of Indian origin were living and working in the archipelago, in extremely bad conditions, and on the very bottom of the social scale. Their heritage is still present to our days, and can easily be observed in communes such as Saint-Francois, though people of Indian origin are more or less integrated into Guadeloupe’s society to our days. Guadeloupe becomes a French departmentAfter the end of the war, De Gaulle visited the West Indies to pay his respect to the islands. France’s disastrous economic situation was partially reflected on Guadeloupe: money was scarce and prices soared after the war. The National Assembly received two proposals of law, one of which was projected by the Communist group, and debates began on the fate of the overseas colonies. The law of the 19 March 1946, promoted by the Ministry of French Overseas declared Guadeloupe a department of France, and Saint Maarten and Saint Barthelemy integral parts of Guadeloupe. Guadeloupe since 1946Becoming a department marked a second great achievement in the island’s history, the first being obviously the abolishment of slavery. In the 1950s, the agricultural sector remained the most important economic activity, employing almost half of the island’s active population. Though the new status displayed great legislative importance, its social results could not be felt until way into the 1950s, when the Caribbean region and the Commonwealth began to experience large migratory movements. As the French West Indies were strongly concerned, the state reacted fast and created BUMIDOM, an Immigration service for French overseas departments in 1961. Migration to Metropolitan France was thus regulated: moving to the mainland was possible only for studying or working purposes. The population changes concerned above all Ile de France and Paris. Guadeloupe suffered two ravaging hurricanes with an interval of ten years, David and Hugo. Hugo, a reminder of the 1928 mortal cyclone, resulted in 12 casualties, and thousands of people rendered homeless, crops devastated by the strong winds. An era of reconstruction was to follow, severely criticised by certain political circles. Decentralisation took shape in 1982 with the law of Gaston Deferre. A second local administrative office, the regional council was established in 1983, comprising of 41 members. The instalment of the council instituted the system of monodepartmental regions in the area, unique in France. A lawyer, Lucette Michaux-Chevry, born on the 5th March 1929 was elected first president of the new community (today’s president is Victorin Lurel, PS), to be appointed Secretary of State for Francophonie three years later by the government of Jacques Chirac. Decentralisation in the overseas departments was followed by a series of laws in favour of political, social and economic development. One of the most important of these laws was the LOOM (Law of Orientation on Overseas Territories), which came into force after the famous Declaration of Basse-Terre (December 1999), signed by presidents of the respective regional councils: Lucette Michaux-Chevry, Alfred Marie-Jeanne (Martinique) and Antoine Karam (Guyana) with the objective to acquaint the public with the negative assessment in the three departments. This manifesto broke a great number of taboos, ridiculing the terms “generalised help” and “social drift” and the necessity of local initiative was rendered evident. Claims of a Guadeloupean identityBefore proceeding to examine its evolution, we must first take some time to understand the context into which independence arrived in the West Indies. Relations between Guadeloupe and Metropolitan France were a great political issue in the circles of the former slave population, and the interpretation of these relations differed greatly from one political group to another. As a matter of fact, differences of opinion were so huge, that people did not come to terms with each other even within the same interest parties. Ideas drew closer together with the event of departmentalisation. The “Negritude” movement, launched by Aime Cesaire, Leon-Gontran Damas and Leopold Sedar Senghor is a perfect example of the mentality of these times. Negritude proudly, simply and openly claimed one sole issue: identity, which brought about a fundamental debate concerning the exact meaning of the concept of “one people”. In other words, the need for a common base approached certain visions and opinions, without successfully defining their mutual limits. It was at this point that those in favour of total independence began to be segregated from the masses, and started out on their way to radicalism. Let us not forget the historical era concerned: decolonisation had not begun, and Algeria was still an integral part of France, a colonial power with little taste for the development of radical ideas. The first overt sovereignty movement would not come into existence until 1963, under the name of GONG (National Organisation group of Guadeloupe), which would later become the UPLG (People’s union for the liberation of Guadeloupe) in 1978 and respectively the Guadeloupean Movement, merging with the KLNG (Kombat of national liberation of Guadeloupe). The island’s Communist Party also adopted a sovereignty movement in 1964, but the first actual independentist deeds would not spring into action until twenty years later. In August 1980, the Armed Liberation Group (GLA) presented France with an ultimatum until the 31 December. Three bombs exploded in Pointe-a-Pitre one month later, followed by another one in Raizet, killing an army official. Luc Reinette was arrested and charged with the kidnapping of a journalist of the FR3. Three further blasts shook all three overseas departments (Martinique, Guadeloupe, Guyana) awake in 1983. Radio RCI was fully destroyed by a bomb attack in November of the same year, another explosion wounded 23 people at Basse-Terre’s police headquarters. The year 1984 brought along the attack on the Meridien Hotel in Saint-Francois, as well as several other blasts. And as for today? Political groups have multiplied and sovereignty movements have undergone significant segmentation. Metropolitan France and other countries now host growing West Indian communities. France today does not advocate departmentalisation, and the Hexagon is evolving into a multicultural, pluri-ethnic society. Guadeloupe’s “distinctive characteristics and features” are seen in a more and more positive light, and the European Union’s economic and social advantages are also a crucial element in the view of overseas territories. Guadeloupe’s changing mentality is reflected in the referendum of December 2003: the island hitherto known for its segregationist movements suddenly voted no by 72.98%. The region’s reactionary history appears to be a phase of the past, and an increasing number of Guadeloupeans are beginning to comment on these episodes like Corsicans do. Independentists may make a lot of noise, but they definitely do not represent the opinion of the entire population today.
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After successful settlement on the island of St Christophe
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