History of Martinique : Discover

Discover Martinique : History

History

In terms of history, Martinique’s society is a young one. The abolishment of slavery in 1848 gave birth to society as known today, and certain elements are still under formation up to our days. History is thus present on an everyday level and acquainting yourself with its basics is essential if you wish to understand the cultural context of the island you are bound to visit.

Chronology

1635 : The first French colonists found the colony of Saint Pierre under authority of Pierre Belain d’Esnambuc. A year later, Louis XIII’s decree grants the introduction of slaves onto the territory of the French West Indies.

1645 : Creation of the Sovereign (Superior) Council, endowed with various authority, such as the registration of noble titles of the islands’ families. The Council’s role would further evolve with the times.

1648 : Following the bankruptcy of the French American Islands Company, the islands are offered for sale. Martinique is purchased by Jacques Dyel du Parquet.

1664 : Jean-Baptiste Colbert founds the French West India Company, and the French government takes control of the islands, and among them, Martinique.

1674 : Another bankruptcy leads to the break-up of the French West India Company, though exclusivity over commercial activity is maintained. Michel-Adrien de Ruiter, a Dutch lieutenant-admiral attacks the island but is quickly beaten off. French victory opens doors to the development of Fort de France.

1685 : Colbert’s Black Code on slavery organises the slaves’ lives into sixty articles.

1720 : Gabriel de Clieu, governor of Martinique introduces coffee to the islands.

1762-1814 : Respective periods of English colonisation, with extremely important consequences of differentiation from Guadeloupe. Social schemes are maintained, and the sugar industry continues its expansion.

1794 : Slavery is abolished by the Convention, but Martinique does not apply the decree under English rule.

1802 : Treaty of Amiens with the English, who withdraw from the West Indies. Napoleon re-establishes slavery.

1804 : Crowning of Empress Josephine de Beauharnais, native of Trois-Ilets (1763), wife of Napoleon Bonaparte.

1807 : England prohibits the African Slave Trade, but the decree is not adopted by France at war.

1812 : Benjamin Delessert introduces beetroot to Napoleon. .

1815 : Napoleon prohibits African Slave Trade at the time of the Hundred Days War, and his successor, Louis XVIII is obliged to maintain the decree under English pressure. Actual prohibition is not to come into force until 1831.

1844-45 : First sugar factories, of the so-called “central” type, the sugarcane industry is in bloom.

1848 : Abolishment of slavery (commemorated on the 22 May), by decree of Victor Schoelcher (1804 – 1893).

1851 : The law of July 1851 authorises the foundation of the Colonial Bank (current Bank of the French West Indies, BDAF).

1852-1870 : The Second Empire: liberty is restricted in numerous ways.

1853 : Beginnings of Indian immigration.

1863 : Establishment of a second financial institution: the Colonial Land Bank.

1871 : The Third Republic: Colonies are represented in the National Assembly, the House of Representatives and the Senate. A new wave of French social reforms is put in place in Martinique (secularism and free education).

1901 : Marie-Samuel Joseph Lagrosillière, A.K.A « Lagro » founds the Socialist Party

1902 :Eruption of the Pelee Volcano, destruction of the town of Saint Pierre, causing approximately 27,000 casualties. The functions of administrative, commercial, financial and cultural capital are moved to Fort de France.

1905 : Beginnings of the construction of the Panama Canal, attracting more than 5000 Martiniquean workers.

1913 : First World War: first draftees leave for the mainland. Martinique engages in massive rum export during the war, until up to 1922.

1928-1930 : Banana plays a more and more important role in local economy.

1929-1932 : Mount Pelee erupts again, but this time the population is prepared in advance.

1939-1945 : The island is under Vichy regime from September 1939 to July 1943, personified by Admiral Georges Robert.

1946 : Martinique receives the status of French department, represented by four deputies and two senators. A year later, Pierre Albert Trouille becomes the island’s first prefect.

1951 : First hurricane with a name, referred to as “Dog”

1958 : In March, creation of the PPM (Progressive Party of Martinique) under direction of Aime Cesaire. Camille Petit founds the UNR (Union for the new Republic) in the same year. The latter party would change its name in 1971 to become UDR (Union of Republican Democrats), and respectively in 1976 to RPR (Union for the Republic).

1961 : Creation of the BUMIDOM (Immigration service for French overseas departments), an institution to regulate emigration from overseas territories towards Metropolitan France.

1963 : Hurricane Edith (10 casualties and considerable damage), followed by Beulah four years later.

1971 : Establishment of a Californian oil refinery.

1973 : Alfred Marie-Jeanne, Lucien Veilleur, Marc Pulvar and Garcin Malsa found the movement « La Parole au Peuple »

1972-1974 : Martinique becomes a « monodepartmental » region.

1978 : Alfred Marie-Jeanne founds the MIM (Martinique Independentist Movement)

1983 : Establishment of the Regional Council, within the framework of decentralisation, with Aime Cesaire as its first president. Official opening of the University of Antilles-Guyana.

1986 : Camille Darsieres succeeds Aime Cesaire in the Regional Council, followed by Claude Lise six years later.

1994 : Martinique remains firmly left wing. The Regional Council is presided by a Communist and dominated by the PPM, while the General Council is presided and dominated entirely by the PPM.

1997 :Parliamentary elections nominate two right-wing deputies (Anicet Turinet and Pierre Petit), an independentist one, Alfred Marie-Jeanne and one from the PPM, Camille Darsiere.

1998 : 150th anniversary of the abolishment of slavery.

1998 : The independentist candidate Alfred Marie-Jeanne is voted president of the Regional Council, reaping the fruit of thirty years of perseverance. The political situation is characterised by the co-habitation of the classical right-wing (RPR), Martinique left-wing (PPM) and the MIM. Alfred Marie-Jeanne militates in favour of the concept of “Unique Assembly” (as the island has a double status of region and department).

1999 : Declaration of Basse-Terre, signed by presidents of the respective regional councils: Lucette Michaux-Chevry, Alfred Marie-Jeanne (Martinique) and Antoine Karam (Guyana) with the objective to acquaint the public with the negative assessment in the three departments.

March 99 : Europe and the United States engage in commercial battle over the banana of Martinique.

2000 : Law of Orientation on the overseas territories.

June 2000 : Aime Cesaire announces his unwillingness to run for role of the mayor of Fort de France in the next municipal elections. Serge Letchimy (PPM) succeeds him a year later.

8 May 2002 : Commemoration of the hundredth anniversary of the eruption of Mount Pelee in a festive mood, with the first assembly of old rigging and sailboats of the Caribbean (4-8 May, 2002).

2003 : The issue is “More responsibility and less assistance” . But would the answer be the Overseas Programme Act? In April 2003 the Regional Council announces the creation of a relief fund concerning the local economy in order to relaunch investment. December 2003 :Referendum concerning the islands’ institutional future: 50,48% of Martinique’s population votes “no” to the proposal.

2004 : Martinique’s 24th prefect, Yves Dassonville replaces Michel Cadot (2000-2004) in February. Torrential rains ravage the island after a period of draught in 2003 and the agriculture suffers severe damage. The Minister of Agriculture, Herve Gaymard offers an aid of 9 million euros in aid of the banana industry in crisis. This, along with aids from Brussels account for a sum of 17 million euros, which still proves insufficient to relaunch the situation. Trade unions CSTM and UGTM trigger criticism on the status of schoolteachers coming from Metropolitan France, drawing attention to cultural differences and to the significant number of teaching positions which should preferably be given to local professionals. Delinquency levels are on the rise, and illegal immigration cases fill the island’s courtrooms.

2005 :Referendum on the European Constitution: Martinique votes “yes” by 69%, though the participation rate is no higher than 22%. The sugarcane industry is on the rise and demands for aids are relaunched. The “Dieudonne affair” reaches Martinique, and he becomes victim of an aggression, which act is condemned by the island’s leaders, thus tensions are calmed. The Region and its police superintendent debate over a development subsidy granted to the Association of Caribbean States, the prefect being of the opinion that national sovereignty is at stake. Cruise-ship tourism is on the decline, and West Indian banana is in the state of crisis: the European Commission grants a total of 110 million euros in aid for the industry. The PPM (Martinique Progressive Party) holds a much debated congress. Francois Baroin becomes the new Minister of the Overseas Departments, replacing Brigitte Girardin in this function.

Before Columbus

The Caribbean region was first to lay eyes on the “men from over the sea”. The exchange between colonists and the indigenous population soon proved fatal in terms of local culture, and populations became extinct at an incredible speed most particularly in the Greater Antilles. New illnesses (flu, smallpox), battles, punishment expeditions, deportation, assimilation and slavery had a devastating effect on these cultures. Inhabitants of the Lesser Antilles managed to resist foreign influence for a longer period of time. They held their ground until well into the 19th century, but in turn they too vanished forever from the islands’ history due to aggressive colonisation.

Such was the end of a culture of over 6500 years. Scientists believe that the first men arrived in the region between 10000 and 5000 B.C., in the “Paleo-Indian” period, though traces of human presence at these time have not yet been found. The first proved habitations were constructed in the “Meso-Indian” period (between 5000 B.C. and our age). The hunter-gatherer peoples of this era lived in a relatively mobile society, due to their reliance upon the ability of a given natural environment to provide sufficient resources in order to sustain their population. Utensils were carved out of stone, bone and shells, and used for divers purposes. At the end of this period (from the 5th century on), a new culture arrived to the area from the region of the Orinoco River. These people, known as Saladoids (with reference to the site of Saladero in today’s Venezuela) mastered the fine art of ceramic and engaged in agriculture, navigation and fishing. They rapidly made their way from the Lesser Antilles towards southern parts of the Greater Antilles (Puerto Rico, Haiti and the Dominican Republic) introducing the region to manioc, sweet potato and chillies. Links between Saladoid and the hunter-gatherer Meso-Indian cultures are yet unknown to our days, due to lack of excavated evidence. Confrontation? Assimilation? Crossbreeding? Or had the Meso-Indians been simply pushed forward towards the Greater Antilles by these new arrivals, where they possibly met Columbus and became hitherto known as the Ciboneys?

Whatever the case, the presence of Saladoid culture (also referred to as “Arawak”) has been proven in the area. Archaeological findings have revealed a certain alteration in arts, a decline in migratory movements and feebler links with the mainland from the 6th century onwards, an age referred to as that of “Neo-Indians” (also called “Huecoid”, from our times to the arrival of the colonists). These facts have constituted considerable cause for debate, as this alteration has often been accounted for by the arrival of a new culture, yet again from the region of the Orinoco Flow: that of the Caribs (or Kallinagos). This new people bear all characteristics of indigenous populations well-known to us from colonial times, most infamous of which is cannibalism itself. Their boorish nature and battleful habits are described to us in detail by chroniclers of the first colonists, who unfortunately often mistook Arawaks for Caribs and vice versa. The region’s archaeological excavations, though, have in no way ascertained a renewal of populations or traces of confrontation due to contacts with a new, enemy culture. The name “Tainos”, widely used at the time to denote any aboriginal whatsoever, was also an invention of these early times, referring to any inhabitant of the Greater Antilles.

Colonial period

The Caribbean colonial period is associated above all with one of the world’s best-known figures: Christopher Columbus (1451 – 1506), Genovese cartographer and seaman, nominated admiral by Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon on the 17 April, 1492. Modern history in the islands began on the night of the 12 October, 1492, when the admiral arrived to the islands of the present day Bahamas (to San Salvador, or Guanahani as called by locals) with his three ships (the Pinta, the Nina and the Santa Maria) and 90 men.

The island of Martinique was discovered and named by Columbus on his fourth journey in June 1502, just before he embarked on his infamous voyage towards Central America. Practically all the islands in the region were given their present-day names during these few years of history, baptised by Columbus and his men or noted from the vernacular – often falsely – by chroniclers of the times. Certain aboriginal names thus survived, though were greatly distorted, and in some cases the nomination remains a mystery to our days. The name “Martinique”, for example, was supposed to have derived from “Madinina”, meaning “the island of flowers” or “the island of women”, even though the greatest majority of flowers were introduced to the island by the same Spaniards years later, so this track is more than likely to be a false one. Women, on the other hand, were a whole different matter. Legend has it that a certain island or region existed where lived only the most beautiful of women, a region known by the name of Matinino, as reported by Pedro Martir de Angleria (1455 – 1526, chronicler and tutor of Columbus’ son, Diego Columbus, a witness of the colony’s first years). As we all know, Columbus’ obsession with gold played an important role in the fate of the newly discovered islands, and the legendary Matinino seems to have been the place to look for if one’s interests were of the metallic nature. Matinina or Madinina appear to be versions of the above mentioned legend, though the island of Martinique was also referred to as Jouanakaera, or Gwanakaera in the local vernacular.

16th and 17th century

The 16th century was a Spanish one in this region, though not quite so peaceful, due to significant pirate activity often financed by rival powers, who were but little pleased with the Spaniards’ arbitrary hegemony of the area. The Conquistadors had other fish to catch than to waste time on small islands such as Martinique: there lay ahead of them the colonisation and exploitation of a whole continent with inconceivably vast territories, riches and men. The indigenous population proved reluctant to reconvert to slavery, and the Spaniards, not wanting to waste more time than necessary, opted for the never-failing method and launched the triangular slave trade soon after their arrival in the area.

England, along with the era’s other noteworthy Western powers, was not to manifest interest in the area until the 17th century. Saint Christophe (present day Saint Kitts) became the first French island in 1625, under leadership of Pierre Belain d’Esnambuc (1585 – 1637). Sponsored by Armand Jean du Plessis (Cardinal Richelieu 1585 – 1642), he created the Saint Christophe Company, which set out to regulate commercial activity in the newly acquired colonies. The organisation soon fell apart due to rather incompetent handling, and gave up its seat to the newly formed American Islands Company (1635), which also faced considerable difficulties owing to significant rivalry among various appointed actors of the Crown. D’Esnambuc arrived to Saint Pierre in September 1635, and constructed a fortress in concession of Jean Du Pont, governor of the newly colonised island (1635 – 1636). The arrival of French colonists was little appreciated by the indigenous population, among them the inhabitants of Guadeloupe, and they proceeded to attack the new arrivals. A first offensive was beaten off by Du Pont, who was later captured by the Spanish on his way to Saint Christophe. D’Esnambuc appointed his nephew, Jacques Dyel du Parquet as new governor, and the latter proved a good choice in maintaining relative peace in Martinique, contrarily to his colleague in fierce Guadeloupe. The two islands remained true to this first colonial experience during the rest of their history: Guadeloupe was and is often at unrest while Martinique remains as opulent and relatively peaceful as it was in the beginning.

Du Parquet took to work as soon as he became governor of the island. He established good relations with the indigenous population, distributed land among colonists and new arrivals, founded a sovereign council (1645), built a fort in Fort Royal (the would-be Fort de France, founded in 1669), introduced sugarcane to the island (1638), restructured social life and habitations, acquired Saint Lucia and Grenada, and on and on the list goes of his merits. He even went as far as to buy the island from the American Islands Company, on the verge of bankruptcy in 1651, thus acquiring the title of owning lord which he was to keep until his death in 1658.

The Sun King, Louis XIV’s arrival to power (1654 – 1715) was to greatly alter the island’s history. In 1664, Jean Baptiste Colbert (1619 – 1683) founded the French West India Company, retrieving Martinique under possession of the Crown. From 1670, the Company boasted exclusive rights to trade in the New World, and received large prerogatives such as minting money. Hurt and encroached upon, the Dutch took advantage of being at war with Metropolitan France, and sent their powerful fleet against Martinique in July, 1674, commanded by lieutenant-admiral Michel-Adrien de Ruiter (1607 – 1676). The boats were met by a handful of defenders, and were forced to retreat in shame, having suffered significant casualties: an unthinkable victory for the island, for which it was far from being the last atrocity to handle. English troops would pay hostile visits in years to come, resulting in the relocation of the capital to Fort de France, a city much easier to defend. Saint Pierre, however, remained economic capital. The French West Indian Company was dissolved in 1674, but profitable commerce continued, this time managed directly from Paris. France was on the road to becoming one of the most significant producers of sugarcane, further aided by Colbert’s Black Code, which came into force in 1685.

18th and 19th centuries

Louis XIV was succeeded by the Regency (1715 – 1723) and the ascension of Louis XV to the throne (1723 – 1774). Martinique welcomed the new century in full bloom, to a point where conflicting interests of trade rendered relations rather fragile with Paris. The age greeted a new, profitable produce: coffee, introduced to the island by captain Gabriel de Clieu, lord of Derchigny (1687 – 1774).

Colbert’s reign left its mark on maritime commercial activity, boosting marine trade most particularly with the West Indies. His death plunged Martinique into a doubtful economic state, a negative premonition for the years to follow. The island managed to dodge the Treaty of Paris (1763), which signed the end of the Seven Years War, and though tumult raged on, the sugarcane industry kept in good shape until the country’s next major political event which changed all for better or for worse: the French Revolution.

Martinique entered a major age of conflict, opposing Republicans and Royalists, but also bearing in mind another upcoming factor. The newly independent United States (1776) promoted the notion of equality, societies in favour of anti-slavery issues denounced reactionary colonial policies and Enlightened France also criticised the slave trade in full bloom in overseas territories. The island shifted under English administration, and remained so until the arrival of Napoleon 1st, leaving behind the names of certain important officials of the times, such as Lacrosse or Delgres. Napoleon, a great promoter of order above all re-established the island’s old colonial system, judging commerce primordial for the country. His conflicting foreign relations brought the British to the region to stay until the Restoration, a definite arrangement after the Hundred Days War. To the surprise of all concerned, the newly re-established monarchy proved an unofficial supporter of colonial trade without slavery, which continued to be the court’s favoured point of view until 1831. Political instability, however, was knocking on the door, and the arrival of the Glorious Revolution came as no surprise. Charles X was succeeded by Louis Philippe I, who in turn ceded his throne to the people of the 2nd Republic in 1848 during the February Revolution (1848). Into this context arrived the man who would unravel all incertitude concerning abolitionism: Victor Schoelcher (1804 – 1893), vice secretary of state of the Navy. He was to be remembered by the local population for his undeniable pioneering role in the abolishment of slavery. On the 27th April, 1848 (celebrated on the 23 May) the emancipation act was finally signed and the historic phrase: “No French territory should have the right to hold slaves any longer…” was carved into French law.

Post-slavery society was marked by the beginnings of the island’s industrialisation (sugar factories, mechanisation, railway construction), and was to adapt to new and ever-changing laws. Transition proved to be a painful one with consequences well into our days. The first free elections put Schoelcher in charge of the island, and new regulations were accepted concerning security measures and the reorganisation of the labour force “importing” foreign workforce in order to satisfy the increasing demand of central factories. Immigrants began to arrive from May 1653, predominantly from India, and the island would welcome 25 500 people until 1883, approximately half of the immigration in Guadeloupe.

The period of the Second Empire (Napoleon III) was a milestone in the history of French human rights and liberty. Industrialisation continued, and projects launched by the temporary republican government were not called into question. The myth of ever-powerful banks, capable of backing up the entire industry was on the rise. On the other hand, the second half of the 19th century brought about a sharp decrease in past advantages, and the formerly favoured sugar production found itself in a more and more difficult situation. The island’s monocultural nature became a worrying factor with increasingly tangible consequences. Powerful planters, once a minority, now regained their force, and smaller structures began to face a period of hardship. Obliged to surrender their land to the factories or to larger property owners in order to compensate for their debts, they eventually disappeared and left the ground to wealthier establishments. The 1881 French elections reinforced the Republic, and measures such as the authorisation of trade unions and complete liberty of press were taken. These steps gave new hope to Martinique’s population, in the midst of a fresh sugar crisis, and proceeded to shape a large part of local society as we know today. Waves of reform on the mainland left their mark on the colonies as well, such as Jules Ferry’s educational reforms (secularism and free education), which put an end to an impossible post-abolishment situation, in which former slaves were granted no access to education by administrative measures, which consequently kept this segment of the population from being able to take an active part in society.

Martinique today

20th century

The turn of the century brought about a major catastrophe: the eruption of Mount Pelee in Saint Pierre (8 May 1902). The city, symbol of colonialism, disappeared in less than a day (over 27 000 casualties), and the shock to follow displayed not only demographical, but also social, political and economic consequences. Economic activity was moved to Fort de France, and the island’s northern part, its formerly unchallenged heart in colonial times, was lost to the domination of the south.

The era was characterised by 1880 Third Republic reforms and sugar crises, the latter foretelling the end of the golden years, with the island’s capital in the hands of a small, private circle of professionals and the public sector. Sugar prices plunged, yet goods remained just as expensive, and salaries did not follow, which resulted in troubles and finally departmentalisation. The newly formed trade unions were confronted with a hard task: to take action in an atmosphere where factories are more than fragile and workforce is easy to find. A significant number of workers (about 5000 people) chose to seek a living by working on the construction of the Panama Canal, directed by the Americans owing to the resounding failure of France to win the contract. The surplus of manpower put employers in a forceful position, contrarily to the situation of the abolitionist period. Working class representation gained importance, its members originating from a restricted circle of cultured citizens who had had the opportunity of mastering the wheels of Republican administration. Their enlarging base drew attention to the differences within their own camp: some favoured republican values, colonial integration or the principle of a multicultural entity; others remained distrustful towards Paris and considered any act of reconciliation assimilation itself.

At the breakout of World War I, 20 factories stood their ground despite the crisis in the sugar industry. Industrialisation, rooting from the middle of the 19th century and still a major issue in the first half of the 20th, attracted a new, low-scale migratory movement, filling the need for professionals in new technological advances, management techniques and financial systems. Military service was established in the colonies, and the first draftees left the island in October 1913, to be followed by 18 000 further servicemen. It was for this reason that the production of rum began, supplying the mainland with explosives and beverage for the trenches

After the war, the island sank back into an unfavourable economic context. Optimism brought about by the production of rum died down fast, and sugar prices stood at an all time low due to worldwide overproduction. Only 120 distilleries would last as long as the Second World War. In the 1920s, however, a new crop burst into the market and gained importance in less than a split second: the age of banana had begun.

The Second World War brought Martinique under Vichy rule, and the island underwent the blockade of the Allied Forces. De Gaulle paid homage to the Antilles after the war, and Martinique’s economy reflected the situation in post-war France: lack of goods and soaring prices. The law of the 19 March 1946, promoted by the Ministry of French Overseas declared Martinique a department of France, and departmentalisation created two distinct camps, the contradicting opinions of which continue to be an issue to our days. Anti-departmentalists militated in favour of independence, though their numbers were largely inferior to their departmentalist counterparts. The law also modified the status of “governor”, who was in turn replaced by the “prefect” and the “vice-prefect”. Leftist movements were on the rise, dominating the political palette, and radical Communist groups arose, favouring independence over colonial France. Political diversification wouldn’t gain strength until the emergence of De Gaullism.

In the meantime, the sugar industry continued its decline and unemployment prospects were as threatening as ever. The few remaining factories fought for survival, and benefited almost solely from contributions of the public sector. Sugarcane exploitation carried on, though its utility shifted towards the production of rum, and the banana business was in full bloom, making the agricultural sector the island’s primordial economic activity, employing approximately half of the active population in the 1950s, including temporary and seasonal workers.

In the 1950sDecentralisation took shape in 1982 with the law of Gaston Deferre. A second local administrative office, the Regional Council was established a year later, and the instalment of the council instituted the system of “monodepartmental” regions in the area. Decentralisation in the overseas departments was followed by a series of laws in favour of political, social and economic development. One of the most important of these laws was the LOOM (Law of Orientation on Overseas Territories), which came into force after the famous Declaration of Basse-Terre (December 1999), signed by presidents of the respective regional councils: Lucette Michaux-Chevry, Alfred Marie-Jeanne (Martinique) and Antoine Karam (Guyana) with the objective to acquaint the public with the negative assessment in the three departments. This manifesto, signed by the leaders of three “rival” regions, broke a great number of taboos, ridiculing the terms “generalised help” and “social drift” and accentuating the necessity of local initiative.